Glossary P

Parchment

Printed material, such as a book or document, that is made from the skin of a lamb, sheep, goat, young calf, or other animal.   It was used extensively before the widespread use of paper.   Since parchment manufacture required much labor, its printed matter was very expensive.   A more finely manufactured leather is called vellum .   Vellum is whiter and clearer than parchment.   It requires more effort to make and therefore is even more expensive.

Parliament, British

The supreme legislative body in the United Kingdom (earlier, of England and Great Britain). The parliament (from the French "parler", to talk) is bicameral, with an upper house, the House of Lords, and a lower house, the House of Commons. The House of Commons has almost all the legislative power while power of the House of Lords is very limited. The power of the reigning monarch (Queen or King) over centuries was reduced to a mostly ceremonial status. Members of the Commons are elected democratically by the people. Members of the Lords are bishops (lords spiritual) & nobility (lords temporal) appointed by the monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister (PM), who is chosen by the members of the ruling political party in the Commons. The Prime Minister is the country's chief executive, comparable in function to the President of the United States. (The President also is the head of state whereas the PM is the head of government, the monarch being the head of state.)

The relative powers of the Commons, Lords, and Monarch changed over the centuries. Absolute monarches ("answerable only to God") always had advisors since the 8th century in the form of the Witan, composed of lords and bishops. This body that would later become the House of Lords was called "Parliament" for the first time in 1236. In contrast, other representative entities called Moots were county (or shire) representatives who met together regularly but separately from the Witan. They were composed of local lords, prelates, sheriffs and representatives of each village, but not as the monarch's advisors. It would in time become the House of Commons. Because the monarch needed approval of Parliament to raise taxes to maintain his household and wage wars, Parliament in return exacted concessions and thereby became in time more powerful. The monarch still wielded primary power through his army, which was kept in check only by the armies of the nobles. In 1341 the Commons and Lords met separately as an Upper Chamber and a Lower Chamber. This Upper Chamber became known as the House of Lords while the Lower Chamber became known as the House of Commons. The Commons became more and more powerful over time as monarchs needed its power to lay and collect taxes. However, it was still subject to the monarch's will. Parliament became supreme for the first time when it went to war against King Charles I because of his arbitrary rule. He was tried and executed following the English Civil War (1642 - 1651). The monarchy was restored under Charles II, who made Parliament subservient to his will. However, Parliament became supreme finally and permanently in 1689 with the "Glorious Revolution" durng the reign of James II, although Kings would vie with Parliament for greater power in subsequent years. The American colonies also had democratic governments. However, these were subject to the laws of the British Parliament and the colonial governors and other executives who were appointed by the King. Their grievances were directed at both sources of power.

Pigment

A material that colors other materials.   Pigments are natural and synthetic organic and inorganic.   The cells of organisms contain pigments that color skin, eyes, fur, hair and organs.   Organisms that have deficient pigmentation are called albinos.   Pigments are used to color paint, ink, plastic, fabric and other materials.   A pigment is a dry colorant, usually an insoluble powder, in contrast to a dye, which is either a liquid or soluble.   However, there is no well-defined dividing line between pigments and dyes, and some coloring materials are used as both pigments and dyes.   In some cases, a pigment is made by precipitating a soluble dye with a metallic salt.   The resulting pigment is called a "lake". ^{Wiki n.p.}

Polymer

A polymer is a repeating chain of molecules formed by the bonding of smaller, identical molecules called monomers.   Most useful polymers are organic (e.g., cellulose, sugar, starch, glycogen) , based on carbon chains, but there are also many useful inorganic polymers, such as silicones (polysiloxanes), which are long chains based on silicon and oxygen.   Polymers include a large, diverse group of molecules, (e.g. proteins, rubber, kevlar).   Some polymers are crystalline (molecules are ordered) and stiff in one direction, which makes them make good fibers (e.g., nylon); others are amorphous (molecules are random) like silicones, which makes them soft and flexible (e.g., lubricants).

Monomers become polymers by a chemical reaction called condensation.   Polymers are broken into smaller units, including monomers, by a chemical reaction called hydrolysis.   These chemical reactions usually require an enzyme.