Medical Practices

Introduction

To 1790

The only defense against unknown diseases thought to be communicable before the 19th century was the quarantine, the segregation of the diseased from the well.   It was used since 15th century in Europe and continued to be used in the British-American colonies and the United States.

The first lithotomy (removal of bladder stones) was performed by Zabdiel Boylston, a Boston surgeon in 1706.   In 1718, he removed a woman's cancerous breast. ^{Carruth 45}

In 1713, the English poet, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, who accompanied her husband to Turkey where he was ambassador, brought back news that Turkish doctors were inoculating people with pus from people with mild cases of smallpox.   This method could kill people as well as cure them, so people began inoculating themselves by associating with people who had mild cases of smallpox.   It was a dangerous procedure, but is was a chance people would take because of their dread of this fearful disease. ^{Asimov 207}

The first smallpox vaccination was given In America on June 26, 1721, by Dr. Zabdiel Boylston of Boston.   He then inoculated 240 person, of whom all but 6 survived. ^{Carruth 273}

In 1735, Thomas Cadwallader wrote an account of lead poisoning that results from drinking rum when distilled using lead pipes. ^{Carruth 59}

Scarlet Fever was first correctly diagnosed in 1736 by Dr. William Douglas of Boston. ^{Carruth 59}

In 1747, the British physician, James Lind, studied the effects of food items that spoiled quickly and therefore would not be included in a diet of scurvy victims.   He found that citrus fruits were especially effective in preventing scurvy. ^{Asimov 222}

Edema ("dropsy") is caused by a failing heart lacking the power to circulate the blood.   In 1775, the English physician, William Withering, used the juices of the fox-glove plant to improve the heart pump.   Thus, digitalis was discoved and added to the human disease pharmacy. ^{Asimov 247}

1790-1799

The English physician, Edward Jenner, knew that anyone who contracted cowpox was thereafter immune to cowpox and smallpox, a similar disease, but much more deadly.   On May 14, 1796, he took the fluid from a blister of a milkmaid who had contracted cowpox and injected it into an 8-year old boy names James Phipps who contracted cowpox.   Two months later, Jenner injected Phipps with smallpox, who did not get smallpox.   Two years later, he found another person with smallpox and tried again.   The victim recovered.   Jenner thereby invented vaccination, the use of a mild infection to prevent a severe infection.   Since smallpox was a dreaded disease, Jenner's vaccination technique spread all over Europe and America, thus increasing the life expectancy of Americans. ^{Asimov 273}

1800-1809

In 1800, Dr. Benjamin Waterhouse of Philadelphia performed the first cowpox vaccination for smallpox.

1810-1819

1820-1829

1830-1839

1840-1849

On March 30, 1842, Dr. Crawford W. Long of Jeffersson, GA, used diethyl ether ("ether") while removing a neck tumor.   He used this chemical for years as an anesthetic, but did not make it public until 1849.   Dr. William T.G. Morton, a Boston dentist, on September 30, 1846 using sulfuric ether.   Subsequently, he demonstrated its anesthetic effects on October 16, 1846, when Dr. John Collins Warron removal of a neck tumor. ^{Carruth 215,227}

In September, 1846, the American dentist, William Morton, used ether to extract a tooth.   The feat was publicized nd Morton then demonstrated ether's use in an operation at the Massachusetts General Hospital.   This operation under ether began its general use as an anesthetic. ^{Asimov 281}

No one understood the mysterious "disease" was associated with physicians delivering newborns.   It was not associated with midwives, so the theory was that the physicians brought it from other childbirth patients.   In 1847, in Vienna, a Hungarian physician, Ignaz Semmelweiss, forced physicians to wash their hands in a solution of calcium chloride before touching patients.   Although the practice was anathema to physician's pride, it reduced the incident of puerperal fever dramatically.   When Semmelweiss was ousted from his control of the hospital, the physicians resumed their old ways and the incidence of puerperal fever increased.   After the cause of infection was better understood about 20 years later, physicians began to wash their hands regularly to avoid infection. ^{Asimov 357}

In 1847, the British obstetrician, James Simpson, used chloroform to ease women's pain during childbirth.   Some religious leaders objected to this method because of the Bible's admonishment that Eve would bear children in "pain and sorrow" when cast out of Eden.   Science eventually prevailed, however. ^{Asimov 357}

1850-1859

Dr. Willard Parker performed the first cystotomy, cutting into the urinary bladder, in the U.S. in 1850. ^{Carruth 207}

In 1856, the French chemist, Louis Pasteur, undertook an investigation of why wine often turned sour.   He found 2 types of yeast cells, one of which contained the sour lactic acid.   His solution was to kill all yeast cells after fermentation by heating the wine gently at about 50°C, after which it was stoppered and left to age.   The solution worked.   This method also was applied to milk to kill potential diseases in its contamination. ^{Asimov 373}

1860-1869

1870-1879

1880-1889

1890-1899

1900-1909

In 1900, Dr. Walter Reed of the U.S. Army Medical Corps in Cuba, discovered that yellow fever and malaria were transmitted by mosquitoes.   Within the following year, both diseases were almost entirely eliminated by removing stagnant water or coating it with oil. ^{Schles 397}

In 1901, Karl Landsteiner, a native of Vienna, Austria, who eventually emigrated to the U.S., discovered blood groups. ^{How 279}

1910-1919

In 1914, Dr. Alexis Carrel performed successful open-heart surgery on an animal. ^{Carruth 427}

1920-1929

1930-1939

In 1939, the human blood "Rh" was discovered by Drs. Philip Levine and Rufus Stetson of New York. ^{Carruth 503}

1940-1949

In 1940, Karl Landsteiner and Alexander Weiner rediscovered the "Rh" (Rhesus) factor in blood groups.   (See 1939.)

1950-1959

In 1957, Dr. Thomas Ming Swi Chang of McGill University in Montreal produced artificial blood cells and later developed artificial blood.   This has the advantage of having no incompatibility problems with other blood types. ^{How 280}

1960-1969

1970-1979

1980-1989

1990-1999